There is an opinion that people can build their happiness. This is often mentioned to us the proverb: "the Man himself is the architect of his own happiness", "Happiness under the callus lies", "Happiness is not in your wallet, happiness is in your hands".
However, a more widespread view of happiness as luck, random luck, and it suggests that happiness does not depends on the person. Refer to the thought of Aristotle.
"The crowd thinks that the happy life is life lucky or not without success; and she is probably right, because without external goods, which are sent by random luck, you can't be happy. No one can say that randomness is the nature. There, where nature is the cause of something, every time she produces mostly the same, the coincidence is not so, but randomly, haphazardly, and why it is spoken about the case in relation to these things. Not say that randomness is something like a mind or correct reasoning, because in them is no less orderliness, and immutability, but not the case. Maybe random luck is some concern the gods? Or, perhaps, you must not think that? God, we recognize that mastery over such things and distributes good and evil according to merit; however, an accident resulting from chance encounter truly a coincidence. If we suppose that God distributes randomly, then acknowledge his wrong or unjust judge. And this God is not customary." (Aristotle. Vol. in 4 vols. Vol. 4. - M., 1984. - P. 359). Reflecting on this, Aristotle drew attention to the fact that neither fair nor brave, virtuous or anyone else not called lucky, since justice and courage, like any virtue, depend on the efforts of the man himself. Thus, the word "successful" has many meanings: we are called fortunate who, contrary to his calculations had a chance to do something good, and who instead of the expected loss a profit.
"So, the luck is that we get good, how did not expect, and not being evil, what was waiting. Thus to obtain the good characteristic of random luck to get something good is a Fluke in its purest form; not to be subjected to the same evil - happy previtamin. Random luck, thus is the nature of acting thoughtless." (Aristotle. Vol. in 4 vols. Vol. 4. - M., 1984. - P. 359).
From this good luck must be distinguished another, more closely connected with happiness, "at which the man laid by the original impulse to the benefits". (Aristotle. Vol. in 4 vols. Vol. 4. - M., 1984. - P. 359).
Coincidences in our life, there are many, and they are different. There are numerous circumstances proving favourable. They make our life more happy and joyful, and to use them "perfect and upright". (Aristotle. Vol. in 4 vols. Vol. 4. - M., 1984. - P. 71). Such eventualities are identified with many luck, happiness as such. But in life often happen, on the contrary, adverse events that constrain and overshadow our lives, bringing suffering or sorrow. Therefore, you can make quite a bold conclusion: randomness in pure form, are pleasing or overshadow us, have on the lifetime of the average person is quite little impact.
That "smile of destiny" or luck, by themselves, do not constitute happiness, is confirmed by the psychological fact that not everyone who was "lucky" (a remarkable impersonal form of the verb used here), going through what happened as happiness. Meanwhile the experience, the feeling of happiness is essential last. Happiness is such, if it is perceived with all the soul of man as something bright and comprehensive. That is, it fills all of the space, making the experience a higher octave of joy, leaving the person not only filled pleasure, but also inducing them to radiate around the vibration of joy and goodness.
Showing posts with label learning. Show all posts
Showing posts with label learning. Show all posts
Wednesday, December 23, 2015
Tuesday, December 15, 2015
The crunch of breaking the remnants of common sense
Lifespring (Lifespring)... How many in this word... hell all intertwined and said. Translate this English word for "spring of life", and as "source of life", and as "the dawn (beginning) of life," and even as "spring (spring) of life." For the Russian ear these shades are elusive, but the word foreign very vigorously ringing in the brain. What could be the equivalent in Russian? Probably "brains-zing" — the crunch of breaking the remnants of common sense and human lives under tank treads crushing everything and everyone "Lifespring" and other similar pseudoterminal.
And what are high-sounding name of "training companies" that offer this product: "arbiter", "planet of success", "the rose of the world", "My world", "Open world", "peace Foundation", "step into the future", "fulcrum", "Spring of life", "Source of life", "light Source"... pseudopatients ("Bible", charismatic) sects names are often very similar or even exactly the same. True, the "companies" can be emphasized and business signs, as, for example, "the Moscow training center", "Top training company", "Academy of Trainings" (M. Lyakhovitsky) or "the International Academy of Corporate Management", which does not guarantee the quality and safety of services offered. Let us also mention the "Watergroup"[1] as an example of "solid-foreign" names.
And what are high-sounding name of "training companies" that offer this product: "arbiter", "planet of success", "the rose of the world", "My world", "Open world", "peace Foundation", "step into the future", "fulcrum", "Spring of life", "Source of life", "light Source"... pseudopatients ("Bible", charismatic) sects names are often very similar or even exactly the same. True, the "companies" can be emphasized and business signs, as, for example, "the Moscow training center", "Top training company", "Academy of Trainings" (M. Lyakhovitsky) or "the International Academy of Corporate Management", which does not guarantee the quality and safety of services offered. Let us also mention the "Watergroup"[1] as an example of "solid-foreign" names.
An interesting result of the validation of the hypothesis
According to our research all kinds of manipulation of information were rated as more deceptive than a truthful message. This fully corresponds with the theoretical and empirical model of IMT Makkormaka. The result shows that in the context of Russian firms implemented individualistic tendency of interaction, which manifests itself in a specific, direct communications, and do not approve of indirection in business communication.
Interestingly, the deception and the breach of manners, the study participants were rated as less misleading than a lie and a violation of propriety. Previously described Signs that business partners in a small business is extremely prone to half-truths and various secrets (Marks, 1994). Such specificity of business communication in Russia has been particularly relevant in unstable for the economy of the 90's and, apparently, remains and now. Not to say the truth, in the opinion of the Russian people, does not mean to lie. This clearly shows the explanations that were given by the participants of our research in evaluating deception. Often they explained the hype as:: "really", "still true," "True, but ..." the Participants tend to pay attention to what is in the message, but what it lacks is not paying enough attention.
As stated above inappropriate message was perceived as significantly less truthful than the hype. Assessing the violation of the relevance of the participants explained their choice in roughly the same way: "Clearly not entitled" "avoiding the Nonsense the left is" "Evasive, then something is fishy and therefore lies". In General, for recipients omission of critical information, the omission of reasons is even less misleading than information that in principle may be very true, but not relevant. The appropriateness of the violation notice easily and because it raise doubts and mental anguish, "what shadows?".
Sensing message with the violation of manners, recipients evaluated them as less misleading. The reasons for this may lie in that ambiguous to support non-verbal message is interpreted as frivolous and as such it is the attitude of more loyal than to lie and relevance. It should be said that the breach of manners is the most difficult to read, and when analyzing the results we can see that some of the recipients have valued this type of violation as highly misleading. Perhaps, in the perception of violation manners as anywhere else requires high social and emotional intelligence.
Another possible explanation is based on the phenomenon of "lies". Lies, as noted by Signs typical of Russian self-consciousness socio-psychological phenomenon (Marks, 1999). Lies, it is intended that he will eat, however, a liar may try to reduce the seriousness of the situation, and if you happen to avoid the deserved punishment. If a lie is also common and accepted in business communication, this phenomenon can act as a particular style of communication in Russia, like "nunchi" in South Korea and "mianzi" in China. Building on this idea we can assume that individualistic trend of the Russian society smooths out this special style, not allowing him to be generally applicable, however this does not mean that it is not.
An interesting result of the validation of the third hypothesis. Deception from the mouth of the head appreciated by the participants of the study as more than misleading than cheating in a situation of business communication peer employees of the company. Perhaps the fact that the head of more opportunities and responsibilities, and because of his deception forms the greater seriousness of its communication, where deception is not appropriate and therefore is assessed as less than truthful. If in the normal situation ("employee-employee") on the evaluation affected by the fact that the employee still told the truth (albeit not all), "supervisor-employee" decisive importance takes that missed the head, as his position imposes on his words a special significance. Based on this reasoning, we can assume that the higher the seriousness of the situation, the more misleading will be perceived deception.
Summarizing the above, we can derive an interesting result. The results of this study partly correlate with all the previous studies and on a sample of Western culture (Lapinski, Levine, 2000) and on a sample of Eastern culture (Yeung, Levine, and Nishiyama, 1999; Park, Ahn, 2007; Murai, 1998). Indeed all the methods of delusion are characterized as less than truthful, however, you can say that there are two groups of methods differ in the degree of veracity. The first group includes the most deceptive methods: false and inappropriate information, the second the group means of perceived (but not reduced) more close to the truth: deceit and breach of manners. This combination of the early obtained results may reflect a cultural feature of Russian people involved in business communication.
Interestingly, the deception and the breach of manners, the study participants were rated as less misleading than a lie and a violation of propriety. Previously described Signs that business partners in a small business is extremely prone to half-truths and various secrets (Marks, 1994). Such specificity of business communication in Russia has been particularly relevant in unstable for the economy of the 90's and, apparently, remains and now. Not to say the truth, in the opinion of the Russian people, does not mean to lie. This clearly shows the explanations that were given by the participants of our research in evaluating deception. Often they explained the hype as:: "really", "still true," "True, but ..." the Participants tend to pay attention to what is in the message, but what it lacks is not paying enough attention.
As stated above inappropriate message was perceived as significantly less truthful than the hype. Assessing the violation of the relevance of the participants explained their choice in roughly the same way: "Clearly not entitled" "avoiding the Nonsense the left is" "Evasive, then something is fishy and therefore lies". In General, for recipients omission of critical information, the omission of reasons is even less misleading than information that in principle may be very true, but not relevant. The appropriateness of the violation notice easily and because it raise doubts and mental anguish, "what shadows?".
Sensing message with the violation of manners, recipients evaluated them as less misleading. The reasons for this may lie in that ambiguous to support non-verbal message is interpreted as frivolous and as such it is the attitude of more loyal than to lie and relevance. It should be said that the breach of manners is the most difficult to read, and when analyzing the results we can see that some of the recipients have valued this type of violation as highly misleading. Perhaps, in the perception of violation manners as anywhere else requires high social and emotional intelligence.
Another possible explanation is based on the phenomenon of "lies". Lies, as noted by Signs typical of Russian self-consciousness socio-psychological phenomenon (Marks, 1999). Lies, it is intended that he will eat, however, a liar may try to reduce the seriousness of the situation, and if you happen to avoid the deserved punishment. If a lie is also common and accepted in business communication, this phenomenon can act as a particular style of communication in Russia, like "nunchi" in South Korea and "mianzi" in China. Building on this idea we can assume that individualistic trend of the Russian society smooths out this special style, not allowing him to be generally applicable, however this does not mean that it is not.
An interesting result of the validation of the third hypothesis. Deception from the mouth of the head appreciated by the participants of the study as more than misleading than cheating in a situation of business communication peer employees of the company. Perhaps the fact that the head of more opportunities and responsibilities, and because of his deception forms the greater seriousness of its communication, where deception is not appropriate and therefore is assessed as less than truthful. If in the normal situation ("employee-employee") on the evaluation affected by the fact that the employee still told the truth (albeit not all), "supervisor-employee" decisive importance takes that missed the head, as his position imposes on his words a special significance. Based on this reasoning, we can assume that the higher the seriousness of the situation, the more misleading will be perceived deception.
Summarizing the above, we can derive an interesting result. The results of this study partly correlate with all the previous studies and on a sample of Western culture (Lapinski, Levine, 2000) and on a sample of Eastern culture (Yeung, Levine, and Nishiyama, 1999; Park, Ahn, 2007; Murai, 1998). Indeed all the methods of delusion are characterized as less than truthful, however, you can say that there are two groups of methods differ in the degree of veracity. The first group includes the most deceptive methods: false and inappropriate information, the second the group means of perceived (but not reduced) more close to the truth: deceit and breach of manners. This combination of the early obtained results may reflect a cultural feature of Russian people involved in business communication.
Test technique to evaluate the degree of perception
To test the above hypotheses has been developed a test technique to evaluate the degree of perception of the ways of manipulating the information as misleading. The methodology was laid 9 situations of equal value of business communication: failure to appear for an important meeting (3) failure to perform working duties (3) report on an unsuccessful business trip (3). To each situation were clearly spelled out by the participants of communication: or "staff member – staff member" or "staff member – the head of the Department" or "Director – employee". After the description the situation of the research participants was presented with a question and five responses that were variants of its further development (in random order). One message was true, in others, violated the principles of quality, quantity, relevance and manner of transmission of the message.
Example of technique:
"an important meeting came a staff member. An hour before, he forgot about the meeting, went to the clinic to issue the permit in sanatorium. The head of the Department asks about the reason of absence. The employee replies:
1. "Soon many new businesses will appear: the loan needs to be paid back, child in a kindergarten to arrange, besides the repairs in the apartment there".
2. Coughing and putting his forehead to his hand: "I was in the hospital and completely forgot about the meeting."
3. "I got in a small accident coming out".
4. "I completely forgot about the meeting and went to the clinic to make a tour to the resort".
5. "I was in the hospital.""
The survey participants were to rate each of the messages, based on the facts set out in situation, on a 5-point scale (Likert scale) with 1 being the least true (i.e., misleading) to 5 – the most truthful (i.e. the least misleading). Then you had to explain your choice. These explanations confirmed the external validity of the methodology. In General, the research participants explained their answers in accordance with the theory of IMT.
After several testing methods have been changed some answers, and simplified instruction. The respondents ' answers incorrectly carrying out the instruction was excluded from the analysis. The survey was conducted individually, anonymity of results was guaranteed.
Example of technique:
"an important meeting came a staff member. An hour before, he forgot about the meeting, went to the clinic to issue the permit in sanatorium. The head of the Department asks about the reason of absence. The employee replies:
1. "Soon many new businesses will appear: the loan needs to be paid back, child in a kindergarten to arrange, besides the repairs in the apartment there".
2. Coughing and putting his forehead to his hand: "I was in the hospital and completely forgot about the meeting."
3. "I got in a small accident coming out".
4. "I completely forgot about the meeting and went to the clinic to make a tour to the resort".
5. "I was in the hospital.""
The survey participants were to rate each of the messages, based on the facts set out in situation, on a 5-point scale (Likert scale) with 1 being the least true (i.e., misleading) to 5 – the most truthful (i.e. the least misleading). Then you had to explain your choice. These explanations confirmed the external validity of the methodology. In General, the research participants explained their answers in accordance with the theory of IMT.
After several testing methods have been changed some answers, and simplified instruction. The respondents ' answers incorrectly carrying out the instruction was excluded from the analysis. The survey was conducted individually, anonymity of results was guaranteed.
It is possible to identify four hypotheses:
1. Messages in which there is a disturbance in the quality, quantity, manner and relevance of transmitted information, will be evaluated as significantly less truthful than messages that do not violate these principles.
2. Messages out the number of the transmitted information and the violation of the manner of its transmission will be evaluated as significantly less deceptive than messages that violated the principles of quality and relevance of transmitted information.
3. The perception of the method of confusion is dependent on situations of business communication (the status of participants of communication), in which an interaction takes place.
4. The perception of the way misrepresentation does not depend on the particular situation of business communication (the status of participants of communication), in which an interaction takes place.
Cultural aspects of the perception
Since the beginning of 90-ies, was conducted a number of studies aimed at identifying features of perception of different ways of introducing misconceptions on different samples with the use of IMT.
First, the fundamental study of Makkormaka, conducted in 1992, revealed that all types of manipulation are misleading. This study formed the basis of the above concept.
Jacobs questioned the results of the study of Makkormaka and proposed the principle of "quality superiority", in which he realizes the idea that a misrepresentation is necessarily effected through the breach of the principle of quality. However, further studies confirmed the high validity of the first model (Lapinski, Levine, 2000).
Then the young colleagues have identified cultural aspects of the perception of types of manipulation information on the students in Hong Kong. The result of this study was that students of Chinese culture is not perceived violation of the amount of transmitted information and the violation of the manner of transmission of information as deceptive (Yeung, Levine, & Nishiyama, 1999). According to Yang IMT is based on Western (individualistic) culture and, in applying it to specific Chinese culture distortion may occur. For example, in Chinese common culture, indirect communication style, and because omissions, refusal of criticism and exaggeration are not perceived as misleading.
Park and Ahn (Park, Ahn, 2007) found that Koreans do not perceive the violation of the manner of transmission of information as misleading. According to the researchers it affects common in Korea indirect style of communication – "nunchi" which involves the violation of several principles of normal communication.
First, the fundamental study of Makkormaka, conducted in 1992, revealed that all types of manipulation are misleading. This study formed the basis of the above concept.
Jacobs questioned the results of the study of Makkormaka and proposed the principle of "quality superiority", in which he realizes the idea that a misrepresentation is necessarily effected through the breach of the principle of quality. However, further studies confirmed the high validity of the first model (Lapinski, Levine, 2000).
Then the young colleagues have identified cultural aspects of the perception of types of manipulation information on the students in Hong Kong. The result of this study was that students of Chinese culture is not perceived violation of the amount of transmitted information and the violation of the manner of transmission of information as deceptive (Yeung, Levine, & Nishiyama, 1999). According to Yang IMT is based on Western (individualistic) culture and, in applying it to specific Chinese culture distortion may occur. For example, in Chinese common culture, indirect communication style, and because omissions, refusal of criticism and exaggeration are not perceived as misleading.
Park and Ahn (Park, Ahn, 2007) found that Koreans do not perceive the violation of the manner of transmission of information as misleading. According to the researchers it affects common in Korea indirect style of communication – "nunchi" which involves the violation of several principles of normal communication.
Consider the options of infringement of the principles
1.The principle of quality determines what the dialogue will be to provide information that they consider is truthful. The violation of this principle creates a lie. Returning to the difficulties of definition of this phenomenon, we can say that the lie is deliberate, covert manipulation of the quality of the transmitted information.
2. The principle amount is based on the expectation that the contribution of the participants in the dialogue will be as informative as the situation requires. Violation of this principle, well describes the deceit, concealment and silence.
3.The principle of manners is based on the expectation that the other person will present the information clearly and in a manner that fits the situation. Violation of this principle, well describes the situation, when a person tries to mislead the interviewee by transmitting information in an ambiguous and unclear manner.
4. The principle of relevance is based on the expectation that the other person can provide information relevant to the issue, and will not deflect the conversation from its essence. The violation of this principle fits under the term "subversive response" (Turner, 1975), in which the interlocutor redirects the conversation, deflecting it from dangerous facts.
Theories of deceit
Traditionally, most researchers have focused on the study of lying (or fraud), whereas more subtle forms of introduction confusion has remained largely unexplored. The reason for that is the absence of a viable theoretical framework that could combine into a clear system different ways of introducing misconceptions, explain the mechanism of lies and has helped to identify clear and understandable definitions of these phenomena (Anolli, 2001). The creation of such a theoretical framework has become one of the main objectives in recent decades, and this has led to the emergence of various concepts. The most developed and modern concept – theory of manipulation (IMT).
IMT is currently one of the most discussed theories of deceit, it attracted the attention of psychologists from different countries (e.g., Anolli, 2001; Lapinski, Levine, 2000; Muraj, 1998; Yeung, Levine, and Nishiyama, 1999), however, Russian psychologists, this theory has not met, so it will be useful to describe in detail.
The theory of such manipulation was developed by Professor of the University of Michigan Makkormaka in 1992. The concept includes the idea that any behavior, the purpose of which is misrepresentation, by secret violations of the principles of dialog and is a manipulation of information. Dialog these principles were developed by the Gris, and include the principles of quality, quantity, manner and relevance.
Moreover, Gries made General, joint principle is an unwritten rule of communication that regulates the basic principles. According to the logic of Makkormaka, deception and lies occurs when there is a secret, deliberate manipulation of belief that both parties adhere to this General rule (Masip, 2004).
IMT is currently one of the most discussed theories of deceit, it attracted the attention of psychologists from different countries (e.g., Anolli, 2001; Lapinski, Levine, 2000; Muraj, 1998; Yeung, Levine, and Nishiyama, 1999), however, Russian psychologists, this theory has not met, so it will be useful to describe in detail.
The theory of such manipulation was developed by Professor of the University of Michigan Makkormaka in 1992. The concept includes the idea that any behavior, the purpose of which is misrepresentation, by secret violations of the principles of dialog and is a manipulation of information. Dialog these principles were developed by the Gris, and include the principles of quality, quantity, manner and relevance.
Moreover, Gries made General, joint principle is an unwritten rule of communication that regulates the basic principles. According to the logic of Makkormaka, deception and lies occurs when there is a secret, deliberate manipulation of belief that both parties adhere to this General rule (Masip, 2004).
The term "misrepresentation" is a broader term lies and deception
In addition, the process of perception of various kinds of misrepresentation affected by the situation in which there is communication, there is an interesting question about the difference of perception of the deception from the chief and the subordinate in the context of business communication.
Another difficulty is clear and understandable distinction between the terms lies, deception and misrepresentation, as well as operationalization more "subtle" types of dishonesty. Most researchers draw the line between lies and deception, however, looking at scientific literature, it is easy to see that not infrequently these terms are mixed. The reason for that, in my opinion, in linguistic difficulties. The term "misrepresentation" is a broader term lies and deception, but the constant use of such bulky structures is problematic and so there are "liars who lie" and "liars who lie". But lies and deception in the psychological research literature describes other ways of introducing misconceptions. For example, Ekman (Ekman, 2003) describes the situation when the communication partner speaks the absolute truth, and in the quantities sufficient for a proper understanding, however, intends to do it in such a manner that the other person comes to the wrong conclusion. Turner (Turner, 1975) examined the so-called "diversionary responses" that mislead the interviewee, deflecting the conversation away from the required information.
The problem of determining lies and deceit
The solution to this issue is impossible without a clear and understandable definitions of cheating, lying and more subtle kinds of manipulation.
Deception became the object of serious scientific study for a long time. Since 50-ies of this issue began to do foreign psychologists, but the domestic science slowed down the ideological factor and, for this reason, the first large-scale study of cheating began to appear not so long ago – since the beginning of 90-ies. Now research fraud thrive and, therefore, there is a need to build bridges between domestic and foreign science about the lies.
After the first studies showing the first serious problems is the problem of determining lies and deceit, as well as the question of the relationship of lies, deceit, and misrepresentation.
With regard to definitions, the definitions are so many, how many researchers of this issue. For example, Ekman defines a lie as "a deliberate decision to mislead the person information, without notice of its intention to do so" (Ekman, 2003). A leading Russian specialist in this topic displays the following Signs definition of lying: "the deliberate distortion of subject know the truth" (Marks, 1993). Masip, having conducted a theoretical analysis on the subject, outputs a generalized definition: "a deliberate attempt, successful or unsuccessful, hide, or fabricate (or/and to manipulate) various (factual and emotional) information, verbally or non-verbally, with the purpose to create or maintain in another belief, which the Communicator considers to be different from the truth“ (Masip, 2004). The total that can be allocated in different definitions is that (1) is false necessarily an intentional act, (2) a lie may take place in different ways, and (3) the liar should be convinced of the falsity of the words (i.e. it should not be a cognitive error). Even at first glance it becomes obvious that the most respected definition difficult to understanding.
Deception became the object of serious scientific study for a long time. Since 50-ies of this issue began to do foreign psychologists, but the domestic science slowed down the ideological factor and, for this reason, the first large-scale study of cheating began to appear not so long ago – since the beginning of 90-ies. Now research fraud thrive and, therefore, there is a need to build bridges between domestic and foreign science about the lies.
After the first studies showing the first serious problems is the problem of determining lies and deceit, as well as the question of the relationship of lies, deceit, and misrepresentation.
With regard to definitions, the definitions are so many, how many researchers of this issue. For example, Ekman defines a lie as "a deliberate decision to mislead the person information, without notice of its intention to do so" (Ekman, 2003). A leading Russian specialist in this topic displays the following Signs definition of lying: "the deliberate distortion of subject know the truth" (Marks, 1993). Masip, having conducted a theoretical analysis on the subject, outputs a generalized definition: "a deliberate attempt, successful or unsuccessful, hide, or fabricate (or/and to manipulate) various (factual and emotional) information, verbally or non-verbally, with the purpose to create or maintain in another belief, which the Communicator considers to be different from the truth“ (Masip, 2004). The total that can be allocated in different definitions is that (1) is false necessarily an intentional act, (2) a lie may take place in different ways, and (3) the liar should be convinced of the falsity of the words (i.e. it should not be a cognitive error). Even at first glance it becomes obvious that the most respected definition difficult to understanding.
Question about the perception of deception depending on the culture and social status of the participants of communication
In modern society with developed system of communication capacity, blurring the boundaries and distances increasingly important for scientists psychologists issues of deception, lies and the quality of information transmitted as a whole. Despite the fact that cheating is morally reprehensible, without it not conceivable human relationships, and because the deception must learn to understand and to make him adequate respect.
In management psychology about the matter lies not developing quite actively, however, there are significant studies of corporate lies, trade secrets and security negotiations (Tarasov, 2007; Hubbel, chory is working for you-Assad, Medved, 2005).
There is another, interesting, yet poorly investigated question about the perception of deception depending on the culture and social status of the participants of communication. The modern world, under the sign of globalization has allowed businessmen of different countries actively interact, and sometimes because of cultural differences, it is difficult to reach an understanding. So, Nishiyama (Nishiyama, 1993) revealed that many of the strategies that are considered common practice in business communication in Japanese firms, the American colleagues is interpreted as deceptive, which certainly has a negative impact on the continuation of cooperation between them. For example, for Japanese it is normal, when his personal beliefs are to the detriment of official interpretation, and the American this mismatch is regarded as hypocrisy. In this vein it is interesting peculiarity of Russia as a country at the crossroads of East and West, which includes both.
In management psychology about the matter lies not developing quite actively, however, there are significant studies of corporate lies, trade secrets and security negotiations (Tarasov, 2007; Hubbel, chory is working for you-Assad, Medved, 2005).
There is another, interesting, yet poorly investigated question about the perception of deception depending on the culture and social status of the participants of communication. The modern world, under the sign of globalization has allowed businessmen of different countries actively interact, and sometimes because of cultural differences, it is difficult to reach an understanding. So, Nishiyama (Nishiyama, 1993) revealed that many of the strategies that are considered common practice in business communication in Japanese firms, the American colleagues is interpreted as deceptive, which certainly has a negative impact on the continuation of cooperation between them. For example, for Japanese it is normal, when his personal beliefs are to the detriment of official interpretation, and the American this mismatch is regarded as hypocrisy. In this vein it is interesting peculiarity of Russia as a country at the crossroads of East and West, which includes both.
Person to recreate his Cosmos
In "the Myth of the eternal return" by Mircea Eliade points to the power of archaic and pre-Christian (even "out-Christian" regardless of time) the whole person to recreate his Cosmos (ordered world) from Chaos (nothingness or full of memories and confusion). Archaic and pagan mythology is always cyclical in nature: linear time became important only in Christianity where there are unique acts, such as the birth, the sacrifice and ascension of Jesus Christ. So for the archaic, the pagan man, it becomes possible to "fix the world", which had been created at a critical the end of one yearly cycle and the beginning of the new. The collective unconscious, and in our time, still trying to repeat this ritual: it is not in the "adult" rites of the New year, however it remained in children's parties. New year's performance in most cases tells us about the "evil forces" that tend to celebrate the New year (stole the maiden, lulled Santa Claus, stole a bag of gifts, etc.) and on their curb, essentially saving the world . Dances around the Christmas tree, accompanied by a "great figure" — Santa Claus, reminds us of the symbolism of the World Tree and our the existence in the middle world of the mortals.
Myth and ritual is always the creation of Cosmos out of Chaos, because myth is closely connected with ritual in primitive cultures. To restore order was possible only through the adoption of the myth at that time and in that place, when the reality is again destroyed by the breakthrough of chaos (for example, in critical disaster situations or at points of rupture times at the end of one and beginning of another cycle). So far, the ritual is able to assert a myth: it happens with state, social and military rituals, claiming the idea of certain social rules and relationships as a given: the inauguration of the President, military parade, the commemoration of the fallen soldiers, "the first ruler" in school, etc.
Myth and ritual is always the creation of Cosmos out of Chaos, because myth is closely connected with ritual in primitive cultures. To restore order was possible only through the adoption of the myth at that time and in that place, when the reality is again destroyed by the breakthrough of chaos (for example, in critical disaster situations or at points of rupture times at the end of one and beginning of another cycle). So far, the ritual is able to assert a myth: it happens with state, social and military rituals, claiming the idea of certain social rules and relationships as a given: the inauguration of the President, military parade, the commemoration of the fallen soldiers, "the first ruler" in school, etc.
The myth peculiar to the greatest concentration of saturation of meaning
Mythological locus allows you to focus a specific meaning and force in the "world of ideas" is sufficient to be common in the world of everyday life. That build individual and collective notions of man about the world.
From the mythological matter are born and created religious myths, tales, epics, political ideology, social representations, national identity, ancestral traditions, family legends. And we may here present the following characteristics of this symbolic of the first substance:
Myth literally; there really is not a metaphor. A metaphor is born in the transition from the world of literal characters in the world.
The myth peculiar to the greatest concentration of saturation of meaning. Here pelagicheskoi dominates the thinking and casual (causal) significance of any alignments.
The myth — the root story of all the many reps, as told and lived.
Myth is ambivalent: thanks to its symbolic nature, it assumes the polarity of opinions and views.
A myth is created, not given above. Mythological form to be created by human culture.
A myth is a view of the world that does not require proof, only faith and meaning.
The myth translates the individual and the society outside. He can quite well describe the world and its components on various grounds; otherwise unrepresented in the myth of the phenomenon will be marked as external "chaos" versus "ordered cosmos" of the myth.
From the mythological matter are born and created religious myths, tales, epics, political ideology, social representations, national identity, ancestral traditions, family legends. And we may here present the following characteristics of this symbolic of the first substance:
Myth literally; there really is not a metaphor. A metaphor is born in the transition from the world of literal characters in the world.
The myth peculiar to the greatest concentration of saturation of meaning. Here pelagicheskoi dominates the thinking and casual (causal) significance of any alignments.
The myth — the root story of all the many reps, as told and lived.
Myth is ambivalent: thanks to its symbolic nature, it assumes the polarity of opinions and views.
A myth is created, not given above. Mythological form to be created by human culture.
A myth is a view of the world that does not require proof, only faith and meaning.
The myth translates the individual and the society outside. He can quite well describe the world and its components on various grounds; otherwise unrepresented in the myth of the phenomenon will be marked as external "chaos" versus "ordered cosmos" of the myth.
Manifest nationalistic views and religious intolerance
Common collective myths are beliefs expressed in the formula "We good, they bad": so manifest nationalistic views and religious intolerance, "the war of the sexes", the stage performance of "teenage rebellion." Civilizational myth of Western culture (both Christian and Islamic) is a representation of his religious knowledge as "the beacon of truth" for other unenlightened peoples. In the last three centuries this Messianic myth has mutated into the idea of scientific education and the promotion of democracy of backward countries and peoples.
Common individual myths at the moment, we may call beliefs about fatalism (all destined, fated) and its polar extremes — individualism (the fate a man makes himself). It is noteworthy that the polarity of the individual in these provisions are entered when the collective religious beliefs of particular have lost interest in this issue or disagreed. In addition, each individual carries a unique compendium of various myths, various aspects of collective beliefs, or typical representations, creating your own unique mythological picture of the world.
In the narrow sense of the word "their myths" we might call some "important story" and "meaningful images", whose existence principally to one man, his family, society, nation and civilization. So the eternal symbol is the image of the Mother, and significant and related stories will be something to match, but something different in different cultures and in different individual stories. How different the Christian virgin Mary, the Greek fertility goddess Demeter and goddess of the Norse Wild Hunt Frigga, but all of them had experienced the death of their children and mourned them. And for many women, their families, generic stories of this experience familiar and significant.
Consciously selected myths (religion, adopted in Mature age, political views, etc.) can be as a result of existential experience and an adherence to certain collective trends. Existential experience may lead to an entry in the myth (and it may itself be a reservoir of such experiences of many people) and conscious and conscious belief in anything.
Common individual myths at the moment, we may call beliefs about fatalism (all destined, fated) and its polar extremes — individualism (the fate a man makes himself). It is noteworthy that the polarity of the individual in these provisions are entered when the collective religious beliefs of particular have lost interest in this issue or disagreed. In addition, each individual carries a unique compendium of various myths, various aspects of collective beliefs, or typical representations, creating your own unique mythological picture of the world.
In the narrow sense of the word "their myths" we might call some "important story" and "meaningful images", whose existence principally to one man, his family, society, nation and civilization. So the eternal symbol is the image of the Mother, and significant and related stories will be something to match, but something different in different cultures and in different individual stories. How different the Christian virgin Mary, the Greek fertility goddess Demeter and goddess of the Norse Wild Hunt Frigga, but all of them had experienced the death of their children and mourned them. And for many women, their families, generic stories of this experience familiar and significant.
Consciously selected myths (religion, adopted in Mature age, political views, etc.) can be as a result of existential experience and an adherence to certain collective trends. Existential experience may lead to an entry in the myth (and it may itself be a reservoir of such experiences of many people) and conscious and conscious belief in anything.
Myth unites people in society
The myth is always real for the person or literally or metaphorically, as, for example, stories about the creation of man by God, or how some General gave his grandfather his cap. The myth tells whenever there is faith in him and everything that was painted or full of faith, when it comes again capable of becoming a myth. This is something that does not require proof, but he lives in views, because in every age. Some myths of the history of mankind ceases to talk, the other continues, and others again and again as if anew. For humans and humanity is the myth that creative force turning the chaos of impressions and disparate events into an ordered picture of the world.
But the myth is not just an ordered system of knowledge, and the structure of significant events and explanations of this world. Ritual, symbolic image of any culture, regardless of the code image (anthropomorphic images, fantastic characters, abstract patterns) always give us an excerpt of the myth, rather open or encrypted layers of the characters which is understandable for people of the era. This can be a divine statue or zoomorphic reliefs of the archaic ages, the allegory of the Enlightenment, the iconic designs of Persian carpets or Soviet propaganda poster of 1920-ies. Any visual "landmark" system culture is a static assertion of the myth.
Myth unites people in society, and because there are myths of family, national, local, public, cultural, human. At the family level, the myth will be a family legend, but it is sacred, a special value (e.g., a story about how people saw during the war a sign in the sky, "hammer and sickle", on the eve of the battle of Stalingrad). This may be a common story, about saving the girl strangers, but the significance of it will be large enough that will become a family myth. Not magic and supernatural experience makes the story a myth, and the significance (emotional "strength") of the plot the narrator and the audience.
Myths, in a General sense, are historical songs, bylinas, spiritual verses, legends, stories about evil spirits, little stories, etc. will also Mythological symbolic structures and rituals of culture and subcultures. If the destruction or lack of mythological significance of the cultural layer there is a myth, the sign and ritual of a narrow community, then it becomes a subculture. Hence the myths, rituals and signs of youth subcultures, religious sects, criminal subcultures and professional communities.
The myth in the broadest sense we will consider the image of the world (and of the individual, in his image) and the history of the world. The first function of myth is to protect man, giving him the limits of the knowable Space (within myth) in the midst of the chaos of the unknown. The second function we will call the development challenge, a test, a requirement that provides a myth of man, that he was able to realize himself not as an animal or natural creature and man.
But the myth is not just an ordered system of knowledge, and the structure of significant events and explanations of this world. Ritual, symbolic image of any culture, regardless of the code image (anthropomorphic images, fantastic characters, abstract patterns) always give us an excerpt of the myth, rather open or encrypted layers of the characters which is understandable for people of the era. This can be a divine statue or zoomorphic reliefs of the archaic ages, the allegory of the Enlightenment, the iconic designs of Persian carpets or Soviet propaganda poster of 1920-ies. Any visual "landmark" system culture is a static assertion of the myth.
Myth unites people in society, and because there are myths of family, national, local, public, cultural, human. At the family level, the myth will be a family legend, but it is sacred, a special value (e.g., a story about how people saw during the war a sign in the sky, "hammer and sickle", on the eve of the battle of Stalingrad). This may be a common story, about saving the girl strangers, but the significance of it will be large enough that will become a family myth. Not magic and supernatural experience makes the story a myth, and the significance (emotional "strength") of the plot the narrator and the audience.
Myths, in a General sense, are historical songs, bylinas, spiritual verses, legends, stories about evil spirits, little stories, etc. will also Mythological symbolic structures and rituals of culture and subcultures. If the destruction or lack of mythological significance of the cultural layer there is a myth, the sign and ritual of a narrow community, then it becomes a subculture. Hence the myths, rituals and signs of youth subcultures, religious sects, criminal subcultures and professional communities.
The myth in the broadest sense we will consider the image of the world (and of the individual, in his image) and the history of the world. The first function of myth is to protect man, giving him the limits of the knowable Space (within myth) in the midst of the chaos of the unknown. The second function we will call the development challenge, a test, a requirement that provides a myth of man, that he was able to realize himself not as an animal or natural creature and man.
Monday, December 14, 2015
The RISK is the risk of unexpected losses
A further disadvantage of the comparative analysis of statistical data about risk is that summary statistics can mask important and defining characteristics of risk. Where there is uncertainty or disagreement with facts, representations of the dot (singular) estimates may inspire overconfidence. Since people are especially interested in potential catastrophic accidents, it is necessary to consider also the probability and magnitude of other possible losses. For example, people's attitude to risk is influenced by the neglect of the statistical the summaries of information on the consequences of possible negative events, about the threat to future generations, about the ease of reducing risk and more.
The RISK is the risk of unexpected losses expected profits, revenue or property, funds, other resources in connection with a random change in the conditions of economic activity, adverse circumstances. The risk is measured by the probability of occurrence of a certain level of losses. The most dangerous risks with tangible probability of losses exceeding the amount of expected profit. Decided to allocate the following types of risk: banking risk, commercial banks; currency risk associated with unexpected changes in foreign currency exchange rates; credit the risk associated with the risk of no return, incomplete return or late return of loans; political risk due to the political changes and military conflicts on economic processes; interest rate — the risk associated with unforeseen changes in interest rates.
The RISK is the risk of unexpected losses expected profits, revenue or property, funds, other resources in connection with a random change in the conditions of economic activity, adverse circumstances. The risk is measured by the probability of occurrence of a certain level of losses. The most dangerous risks with tangible probability of losses exceeding the amount of expected profit. Decided to allocate the following types of risk: banking risk, commercial banks; currency risk associated with unexpected changes in foreign currency exchange rates; credit the risk associated with the risk of no return, incomplete return or late return of loans; political risk due to the political changes and military conflicts on economic processes; interest rate — the risk associated with unforeseen changes in interest rates.
Not everything is relative
One of the most common approaches to deepening people's understanding of risks was to provide quantitative estimates for various types of risk. This approach assumes that information obtained in the consideration of such data would be quite useful to the process of making the right decision, as the scale of the individual and society. So, there is an opinion that we should try to measure all of our risks quantitatively, and then we will be able to compare these risks and to decide which ones to accept and which to reject. Lord Rothschild argued that there is no reason to panic regarding the risks of life until, until you compare the risks that you are concerned about, those that don't bother, but probably should bother. Clever, but what we will be looking at such information.
Usually, such arguments are accompanied by elaborate tables, and even a "risk catalogues", which represent the different indices of death or disability, for a wide range of life risks. For example, comparative data were selected for the risk that a person exposed for 1 hour, showing that 1 hour of riding a motorcycle is as risky as 1 hour stay at 75 years of age. Or, for example, developed a table of activities (for example, a flight for one thousand miles on a jet plane, 3 hours in a coal mine), each of which was considered to increase the annual chance of death of 1 out of a million. The compiler of this table stated that "these comparisons help me evaluate risks, and it seems to me that they can also help them. But the most important use of these comparisons should help us to decide, as a nation, to improve our health and to reduce the rate of unhappy cases". Similarly, other researchers ranked the many types of risks in terms of how they reduce the life expectancy on the basis of the assumption that "at a certain approximation, the order of the risks (in this table) must be order social priorities."
All these compilers comparative data on the levels of risk do not take into account the fact that the comparison of risks is not a decision-making procedure. It does not require the removal of particular findings, for example, the contrast between the risk of riding a motorcycle and the risk of old age. Moreover, even in aid of intuition, risk comparison has several inherent limitations. For example, although some people feel informed, knowing that one takeoff and landing aircraft reduces life expectancy on average 15 minutes, others are completely puzzled by this information. After all, when landing a plane you either die prematurely (almost certainly more than 15 minutes) or will not die. For many people, the average values do not cover adequately the nature of such risks. In fact, it was found that patients facing the prospect of surgery for lung cancer, also asked about the potential threat of death during surgery and its positive results, contributing to the increase in life expectancy. And it was quite reasonable that probably is caused by a person's ability in stressful situations to evaluate risks more adequately than arguing about them abstract.
Usually, such arguments are accompanied by elaborate tables, and even a "risk catalogues", which represent the different indices of death or disability, for a wide range of life risks. For example, comparative data were selected for the risk that a person exposed for 1 hour, showing that 1 hour of riding a motorcycle is as risky as 1 hour stay at 75 years of age. Or, for example, developed a table of activities (for example, a flight for one thousand miles on a jet plane, 3 hours in a coal mine), each of which was considered to increase the annual chance of death of 1 out of a million. The compiler of this table stated that "these comparisons help me evaluate risks, and it seems to me that they can also help them. But the most important use of these comparisons should help us to decide, as a nation, to improve our health and to reduce the rate of unhappy cases". Similarly, other researchers ranked the many types of risks in terms of how they reduce the life expectancy on the basis of the assumption that "at a certain approximation, the order of the risks (in this table) must be order social priorities."
All these compilers comparative data on the levels of risk do not take into account the fact that the comparison of risks is not a decision-making procedure. It does not require the removal of particular findings, for example, the contrast between the risk of riding a motorcycle and the risk of old age. Moreover, even in aid of intuition, risk comparison has several inherent limitations. For example, although some people feel informed, knowing that one takeoff and landing aircraft reduces life expectancy on average 15 minutes, others are completely puzzled by this information. After all, when landing a plane you either die prematurely (almost certainly more than 15 minutes) or will not die. For many people, the average values do not cover adequately the nature of such risks. In fact, it was found that patients facing the prospect of surgery for lung cancer, also asked about the potential threat of death during surgery and its positive results, contributing to the increase in life expectancy. And it was quite reasonable that probably is caused by a person's ability in stressful situations to evaluate risks more adequately than arguing about them abstract.
Many features of perception and assessment of people risk
One of the most common effects of biased assessment of the facts is the tendency of binding judgments to the facts originally presented (figures estimated). Thus, in one experiment the first group of subjects reported that 50 thousand people die annually in car accidents, and the second group – that one thousand of annual deaths occur from electric shock. Although both messages were accurate, the difference in estimates of risks of death for different reasons in the two groups differed in some cases 5 times. In another experiment, the subjects estimated the risk of death from influenza. One group gave an average score of 393 death per 100 thousand cases of influenza. But the second group reported that 80 million people a year get the flu. In this group the mortality rate from the influenza was estimated at an average equal to 6 per 100 thousand cases, which is approximately 65 times less than in the first group.
It also identified many features of perception and assessment of people risk. People assess risk very differently when they see it in couples (e.g. husband and wife) than when judging about it separately. The decision to buy insurance policy is often cancelled when a problem looks like a choice between participation in a risky venture that promises in the future a large sum of money, or loss less amounts of money, but today. Similar options risk, described in terms of lives saved, can be evaluated quite differently, being structured in terms of lost lives. That is a very important and significant effects of format of the data and the context in which these data are presented. Such minor differences in performance risk have much psychological impact on how risk is perceived, and this suggests that the people responsible for information programs and data have very real opportunities to manipulate perception. Moreover, since these effects are not widely known, people can unintentionally manipulate his own perception through spontaneous rash decisions about how to organize my life.
It also identified many features of perception and assessment of people risk. People assess risk very differently when they see it in couples (e.g. husband and wife) than when judging about it separately. The decision to buy insurance policy is often cancelled when a problem looks like a choice between participation in a risky venture that promises in the future a large sum of money, or loss less amounts of money, but today. Similar options risk, described in terms of lives saved, can be evaluated quite differently, being structured in terms of lost lives. That is a very important and significant effects of format of the data and the context in which these data are presented. Such minor differences in performance risk have much psychological impact on how risk is perceived, and this suggests that the people responsible for information programs and data have very real opportunities to manipulate perception. Moreover, since these effects are not widely known, people can unintentionally manipulate his own perception through spontaneous rash decisions about how to organize my life.
The illusion of risk modern scientific "prospect theory"
Paramount influence on the perception and future behavior can be defined as the presentation format of risk. For example, activities that increase the annual chance of death from 1 in 10,000 to 1.3 in 10,000 would probably have seemed much more risky if it were described as giving a 30% increase in mortality risk.
According to modern scientific "prospect theory" (prospect theory), outcomes (results) that are only just possible, underestimated in comparison with outcomes that occur certainly (with a probability of 100%). As a result, any protective actions that reduce the probability of harm to, say, 0.01 to zero will be valued much higher than actions that reduce the probability from 0.02 to 0.01. Scientists say that mental representation of protective actions (or the mind's perception of risk) can be easily manipulated to change apparent confidence. For example, an insurance policy that covers fire but not flood could be presented either as full protection against the specific risk of fire or as a reduction in the redistribution of the total loss of property. Prospect theory predicts that the policy will seem more attractive from the point of view of the first perspective (called the "pseudovariety"), in which it offers unconditional protection against fire.
American psychologists conducted an experiment in the context of one particular type of protection is vaccination. Respondents were asked two forms in which describes the necessity of vaccination and its results. Form No. 1 (probabilistic protection) described a disease which was expected to cover 20% of the population, and it was asked whether people voluntarily get vaccinated the vaccine, which protects half of previewsize. According to the Form № 2 (psevdoberemennost), there were two mutually exclusive and equiprobable varieties of disease, each of which will probably cover 10% of the population, and vaccination will give complete protection from one variety of the disease and no protection against another. Study participants were recruited through an advertisement in the student newspaper of the University of Oregon. Half of them have the Form # 1 – Form # 2. After reading the descriptions, they rated the likelihood that they will be vaccinated in this situation, using a scale that ranged from 1 ("almost certainly will not be vaccinated") to 7 ("almost certainly will be vaccinated"). Although both forms showed that vaccination reduced the overall risk of a person from 20% to 10%, the psychologists expected that she will seem more attractive because who will receive Form 2 than those who will receive the Form № 1. And the results confirmed this prediction: 57% of those who received Form 2, showed that they will be vaccinated, compared to 40% of those who received a Form 1.
Self-confidence leads to self-deception
Although the psychological basis of unjustified confidence complex, a key element is insufficient awareness of people that their knowledge is based on assumptions, which often are insignificant. For example, 30% of respondents in the psychological experiments were firmly convinced that the murder is more frequent than suicide. These subjects were misled by the fact that the murders are much easier to remember, and they were, by virtue of its confidence, is unable to estimate that easy-to-remember events, is an imperfect basis for such conclusions.
According to the American researchers, 94% of University professors believe they are better than their colleagues do their job; 25% of College students believe that they belong to that 1% of students who know how easy to get along with others; 70% of students consider themselves the owners of leadership qualities beyond the average. Only 2% of students ascribe ability is below average. Thus, excessive self-confidence contributes to inadequate self-esteem and leads to self-deception.
Psychologists explain the phenomenon of self-deception many reasons: wishful thinking, prejudice, threat, other unconscious psychological factors that negatively affect human and shape it intention to adopt a particular point of view. In addition to these reasons can be grouped under the General title unconscious motivation, self-deception can be caused by so-called cognitive reasons, i.e. the inability to adequately assess available information. This is, firstly, a false perception of arbitrary information and to identify patterns where they actually no. Secondly, misinterpretation of incomplete or inconclusive information, and reasoning in terms of the singular focus on supporting facts and ignoring unfavorable data and the abandonment of their search.
Numerous studies have shown that most people attach excessive importance to information that confirms their beliefs. Much easier to see any information to support our point of view, than make sure they oppose it. At the same time negative examples require effort even just to recognize them as such, especially, to find them meaningful. It has been proven that the tendency to pay more attention and positive faith and supporting information affects a person's memory. Removing from the memory information associated with one or another approval, the people most likely remember exactly confirming his information.
According to the American researchers, 94% of University professors believe they are better than their colleagues do their job; 25% of College students believe that they belong to that 1% of students who know how easy to get along with others; 70% of students consider themselves the owners of leadership qualities beyond the average. Only 2% of students ascribe ability is below average. Thus, excessive self-confidence contributes to inadequate self-esteem and leads to self-deception.
Psychologists explain the phenomenon of self-deception many reasons: wishful thinking, prejudice, threat, other unconscious psychological factors that negatively affect human and shape it intention to adopt a particular point of view. In addition to these reasons can be grouped under the General title unconscious motivation, self-deception can be caused by so-called cognitive reasons, i.e. the inability to adequately assess available information. This is, firstly, a false perception of arbitrary information and to identify patterns where they actually no. Secondly, misinterpretation of incomplete or inconclusive information, and reasoning in terms of the singular focus on supporting facts and ignoring unfavorable data and the abandonment of their search.
Numerous studies have shown that most people attach excessive importance to information that confirms their beliefs. Much easier to see any information to support our point of view, than make sure they oppose it. At the same time negative examples require effort even just to recognize them as such, especially, to find them meaningful. It has been proven that the tendency to pay more attention and positive faith and supporting information affects a person's memory. Removing from the memory information associated with one or another approval, the people most likely remember exactly confirming his information.
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